When the sun strikes a window of the Shaki Khan’s Palace, red, blue and green light fills the room: thousands of tiny wooden pieces and bits of coloured glass are fitted together without a single nail or drop of glue. These windows were made in an age when Azerbaijan was split into a number of small khanates and neighbouring rulers marched against one another. How did culture live on amid constant wars?
Fragmentation and cultural centres
Each khanate that arose in the mid-18th century had its own capital, palace and army (see «The rise of the khanates and the southern khanates»). This fragmentation affected culture in two ways. On the one hand, internal wars ruined towns and turned building towards defence, so fortresses came to the fore. On the other hand, every khan gathered poets, architects and craftsmen at his court to raise the prestige of his capital, and Shusha, Shaki, Guba, Shamakhi and Ganja became new cultural centres. Revenue from farming, silk, crafts and trade was the material basis of building and craftsmanship (see «Society, economy and administration of the khanates»).
Science, education and history writing
Schools were opened beside mosques. Primary education was given in mollakhanas: children learned the alphabet, reading the Quran, writing and arithmetic, and memorised verses by poets such as Nizami, Fuzuli and Saadi. Higher education was given by madrasas, where Arabic and Persian, fiqh (Islamic law), logic, literature, mathematics, astronomy and medicine were taught. Haji Chalabi had a mosque and a madrasa built in Shaki; schools and madrasas also existed in towns such as Shusha, Shamakhi, Ganja and Baku. Books were manuscripts: scribes and calligraphers copied them, and book collections were gathered in courts and madrasas. Gymnasiums, realschools and seminaries appeared only later, under Russian rule.
Information about the khanate era has reached us mostly through later authors. Abbasgulu agha Bakikhanov wrote «Gulustani-Iram» (1841), a history of Shirvan and Dagestan, Mirza Adigozal bey wrote «Garabaghnameh» (1845), and Mirza Jamal Javanshir Garabaghi wrote the «History of Karabakh» (1847). Mirza Jamal had seen the end of the 18th century with his own eyes; his work describes the Karabakh khanate in particular detail.
Literature and music
In the 18th century poetry was written in Azerbaijani, Persian and Arabic, but in the new age the tradition of verse close to the people’s language, known from Khatai and the ashugs, reached a new stage. This trend was led by Molla Panah Vagif (1717–1797). Born in the village of Salahli in the Gazakh district, Vagif was an educated man who became vizier to Ibrahimkhalil Khan of Karabakh. His goshma, gerayli, tajnis, divani and mukhammas poems stand out for plain spoken language, vivid images and love of people, nature and the beauty of the world; this style laid the foundation of realist poetry. Vagif was killed in 1797 in the turmoil caused by the Qajar campaign. Molla Vali Vidadi (1709–1809) was his contemporary and friend and likewise joined the forms of classical verse with folk poetry. Huseyn Khan of Shaki wrote under the pen-name «Mushtag»: in the khanates a ruler could also be a poet.
Ashug art lived among the people and at court gatherings: ashugs played the saz and performed dastans such as «Koroghlu» and «Asli and Karam», as well as folk poems. Musical gatherings were held in khans’ courts, where mugham was performed on the tar and the kamancha.
Architecture and decorative art
The architecture of the khanate era falls into two groups: defensive buildings, and palaces with public buildings. Panahali Khan began to build the Bayat fortress in 1748; later the Shahbulag fortress and Panahali Khan’s palace were raised near Agdam, and in 1752 the Shusha (Panahabad) fortress was founded in the mountains. Bayat and Shahbulag were poorly placed for a capital, whereas Shusha, ringed by cliffs, was out of the enemy’s reach and became the khanate’s lasting capital (see «The Karabakh khanate: Panahali Khan and Ibrahimkhalil Khan»).
The Shaki Khan’s Palace is the best-known monument of the khanate era. Traditionally it is dated to 1762 and the reign of Huseyn Khan; some researchers link it instead to the late 18th century and the reign of Muhammad Hasan Khan. The palace has two floors, shebeke in its windows, and walls decorated with murals of plant patterns and scenes. In 2019 the historic centre of Shaki, with the Khan’s Palace, was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List. Husaynali Khan of Iravan built the Blue Mosque of Iravan in 1766. There are two mosques called the Blue Mosque: the one in Tabriz was built in 1465 (Qaraqoyunlu era), the one in Iravan in 1766 (khanate era). The Ganja fortress is remembered for Javad Khan’s defence of it in 1804; in Baku, Lankaran and Nakhchivan too, khans’ residences and fortresses were built and restored.
Shebeke is a window or ornament made by joining wooden parts and coloured glass without nails or glue; it is the emblem of the Shaki Khan’s Palace. Carpet weaving was widespread: the Guba, Shirvan, Ganja–Gazakh, Karabakh and Tabriz carpet schools are distinguished. Shaki and Shamakhi were silk centres, and silk fabrics, including the kalaghayi headscarf, were woven there; coppersmithing, jewellery, pottery, and stone and wood carving also flourished.
- 1717
Molla Panah Vagif is born
- 1743–1755
A mosque and a madrasa in Shaki in Haji Chalabi’s time (exact date not known)
- 1748
Building of the Bayat fortress begins
- 1752
The Shusha (Panahabad) fortress is founded
- 1762
Shaki Khan’s Palace (traditional date)
Some researchers give the late 18th century.
- 1766
The Blue Mosque is built in Iravan
- 1797
Death of Molla Panah Vagif
- 1841
Bakikhanov’s «Gulustani-Iram»
- 1845
Mirza Adigozal bey’s «Garabaghnameh»
- 1847
Mirza Jamal’s «History of Karabakh»
| Person | Year | Known for |
|---|---|---|
| Molla Panah Vagif | 1717–1797 | Vizier of Ibrahimkhalil Khan, founder of realist poetry |
| Molla Vali Vidadi | 1709–1809 | Vagif’s contemporary and friend, poet in folk-poetry forms |
| Huseyn Khan (Mushtag) | 1759–1780 | Khan of Shaki, poet under the name «Mushtag» |
| Haji Chalabi | 1743–1755 | Khan of Shaki; had a mosque and a madrasa built in Shaki |
| Panahali Khan | 1748–1763 | Khan of Karabakh; founder of the Bayat, Shahbulag and Shusha fortresses |
| Husaynali Khan (Iravan) | 1766 | Khan of Iravan; had the Blue Mosque of Iravan built |
| Bakikhanov, Mirza Adigozal bey, Mirza Jamal | 1841, 1845, 1847 | Historians: «Gulustani-Iram» (history of Shirvan and Dagestan), «Garabaghnameh», «History of Karabakh» (in that order) |
| Monument | Khanate | Ruler | Year or note |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bayat fortress | Karabakh | Panahali Khan | 1748 |
| Shahbulag fortress, Panahali Khan’s palace | Karabakh | Panahali Khan | near Agdam |
| Shusha (Panahabad) fortress | Karabakh | Panahali Khan | 1752 |
| Shaki Khan’s Palace | Shaki | Huseyn Khan (traditional) | 1762 (traditional); shebeke |
| Mosque and madrasa | Shaki | Haji Chalabi | 1743–1755 |
| Blue Mosque of Iravan | Iravan | Husaynali Khan | 1766 |
| Cause | Result |
|---|---|
| Each khanate got its own capital and palace | Poets and craftsmen gathered at courts; Shusha, Shaki, Guba and Shamakhi became cultural centres |
| Internal wars and raids | Fortress building came to the fore (Bayat, Shahbulag, Shusha) |
| Income from silk, trade and crafts | Palace, mosque and madrasa building and applied art developed |
| The tradition of ashug and folk poetry | A turn to folk language in Vagif and Vidadi, realist poetry |
| Feature | Safavid era | Khanate era |
|---|---|---|
| State | One centralised state | A number of small khanates |
| Centres | Courts of Tabriz, Qazvin, Isfahan | Shusha, Shaki, Guba, Shamakhi, Ganja and others |
| Poetry | Khatai, Fuzuli; court and ashug poetry | Vagif and Vidadi: folk-poetry forms turning into realist poetry |
| Fine and applied art | Tabriz miniature school, carpet weaving | Shebeke, murals; carpet weaving and silk as continuing traditions |
Interactive
Interactive
Source and exam-type tasks
The khan’s vizier was counted as his closest adviser in affairs of state, yet it was not his office but his poems that made his name. At court gatherings he recited his goshmas and gerayli poems, and they passed from mouth to mouth among the people too.
His verses avoided heavy Arabic and Persian constructions and used plain spoken language, praising beauty, nature and love. For this both the court and ordinary people loved him. When the campaigns of the Qajar shah’s army shook the fortress-town, he lost his life in the turmoil.
Source tasks
Problem
1) Name the poet, the khan whose vizier he was, and the khanate, none of which are named in the text.
2) Explain one political and one economic reason why court gatherings and poets flourished in the khanate era.
3) Give two consequences of this poet’s work that are NOT stated in the text.
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Solution
2) Political: the khanates were independent and each khan gathered poets and craftsmen at his court to raise his capital’s prestige. Economic: income from silk, trade and crafts paid for the court and its gatherings. Marks: both — 1; one — ½.
3) The realist tradition close to folk speech influenced later poets (for example Gasim bey Zakir); the Azerbaijani literary language moved closer to everyday speech. Marks: two consequences — 1; one — ½; his popularity is in the text and earns nothing.
Exam task: matching
Problem
Match each monument with its khanate:
1. Shaki Khan’s Palace
2. Shahbulag fortress
3. Blue Mosque of Iravan
a. Iravan khanate
b. Karabakh khanate
c. Shaki khanate
d. Guba khanate
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Solution
Step 2: Bayat, Shahbulag and Shusha are Panahali Khan’s fortresses — Karabakh (2-b).
Step 3: The Blue Mosque of Iravan was built in Iravan (3-a). «d» is the extra one: no Guba monument is listed here.
Answer: 1-c, 2-b, 3-a.
Exam task: «not related»
Problem
Which was NOT part of Panahali Khan’s time in the Karabakh khanate?
A) the start of building the Bayat fortress
B) the raising of the Shahbulag fortress
C) the founding of the Shusha fortress
D) the building of the Blue Mosque of Iravan
E) the building of Panahali Khan’s palace
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Solution
Step 2: D — the Blue Mosque of Iravan belongs to the Iravan khanate and was built in 1766 by Husaynali Khan of Iravan; Panahali Khan’s time ended in 1763.
Answer: D.
Exam task: identifying the period
Problem
Which belongs to the 1760s?
A) the start of building the Bayat fortress
B) the founding of the Shusha fortress
C) the building of the Blue Mosque in Iravan
D) the death of Molla Panah Vagif
E) the writing of the «History of Karabakh»
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Solution
Step 2: Only C falls into 1760–1769; A and B are the 1740s–50s, D the 1790s, and E the 19th century.
Answer: C.
Most of these cultural centres soon faced Russia’s advance — the next lesson is «The start of the conquest: Jar-Balakan, Ilisu and the defence of Ganja».
Remember
- Because each khanate had its own court, Shusha, Shaki, Guba, Shamakhi and Ganja became cultural centres; internal wars put fortress building in the foreground.
- Primary education was given in mollakhanas and higher education in madrasas; the history of the khanates survives in works of the 1840s: «Gulustani-Iram» (1841), «Garabaghnameh» (1845), «History of Karabakh» (1847).
- Molla Panah Vagif (1717–1797) was vizier of the Karabakh khan and founder of realist poetry; Molla Vali Vidadi (1709–1809) was his contemporary; Huseyn Khan of Shaki wrote as «Mushtag».
- In Karabakh the Bayat (1748), Shahbulag and Shusha (1752) fortresses are Panahali Khan’s work; the Shaki Khan’s Palace is traditionally dated to 1762; the Blue Mosque of Iravan was built in 1766 by Husaynali Khan of Iravan (the Tabriz one dates from 1465).
- Shebeke is the emblem of the Shaki Khan’s Palace; the carpet schools are Guba, Shirvan, Ganja–Gazakh, Karabakh and Tabriz; Shaki and Shamakhi were silk centres.