In the autumn of 1988 people gathered day and night on the main square of Baku. They demanded that territorial integrity be protected and that help be given to their countrymen driven from their homes. A year earlier nobody could have imagined such a scene. What had changed? This lesson follows how perestroika opened the political door and how the Karabakh claims and the People's Movement came through it (see «The restoration of independence and the power struggles (1991–1993)» and «20 January 1990: our memory of blood, our pride»).
From stagnation to perestroika
In the late 1970s and early 1980s the growth of the Soviet economy slowed, and the system could not renew itself. Historians call this period «stagnation». On 11 March 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev was elected General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU. Heydar Aliyev, who represented Azerbaijan in the Soviet leadership, resigned from the Politburo in October 1987 (see «Social and economic growth in the 1970s–1980s: the leadership of Heydar Aliyev»).
PerestroikaDefinition
The course announced by Gorbachev from 1985 to renew the Soviet system through economic and political reforms.
Glasnost (openness)Definition
The policy that allowed problems to be discussed openly in the press and in public life.
Glasnost did more than planned. The press began to discuss the past and the present, and people largely lost their fear of punishment for what they said and wrote. Perestroika itself, however, failed: the economy did not recover, shortages in the shops grew, the centre's authority weakened and the national question was not solved. Questions silenced for many years — language, history, territory — returned to the agenda. The Karabakh question became the heaviest of them.
The start of the Karabakh conflict
The Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast had been created in 1923 within the Azerbaijan SSR (see «The end of formal independence and attacks on territorial integrity: the TSFSR, the NKAO and the Nakhchivan ASSR»). Armenian nationalist circles had raised the issue many times, and the centre had rejected their demands. In the years of glasnost the issue became an open campaign. At the same time the expulsion of Azerbaijanis from the Armenian SSR began: from the end of 1987 in districts such as Kafan and Meghri, then in the whole republic. By the end of 1989 hundreds of thousands of Azerbaijanis had been driven from their native land. Thus, after the deportation of 1948–1953, Azerbaijanis were once again driven from their homes in the Armenian SSR (see «The post-war decade: economy, totalitarian rule and deportation»).
Interactive
From mid-February 1988 rallies began in Khankendi. On 20 February the Soviet of People's Deputies of the NKAO appealed to the Supreme Soviets of the Azerbaijan SSR, the Armenian SSR and the USSR, asking for the oblast to be taken out of the Azerbaijan SSR and given to the Armenian SSR. On 22 February a clash took place on the road at Askeran and Azerbaijanis were killed. On 27–29 February mass disorder broke out in Sumgait. Azerbaijani historiography treats the Sumgait events as a provocation meant to damage Azerbaijan's standing and to make the Karabakh claims look justified. The role of the organisers and of the centre is a separate subject of research. In any case civilians — Azerbaijanis and Armenians alike — were victims of this tragedy.
In June 1988 the question was also considered by the supreme bodies of the republics: on 15 June the Supreme Soviet of the Armenian SSR agreed to accept the oblast into Armenia, and on 17 June the Supreme Soviet of the Azerbaijan SSR rejected a change of borders. On 12 July 1988 the Soviet of the NKAO adopted a decision on the oblast's secession from the Azerbaijan SSR. On 18 July the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet declared a change of borders unacceptable, but the matter was not settled. On 12 January 1989 a Special Administration Committee headed by Arkady Volsky was set up in the oblast; it limited the powers of the Azerbaijan SSR and was seen in Azerbaijan as an attack on territorial integrity. The committee was abolished in November 1989, but on 1 December the Supreme Soviet of the Armenian SSR adopted a one-sided decision on joining Karabakh to Armenia. Azerbaijan did not recognise it and considered it illegal. Its further effect is followed in «20 January 1990: our memory of blood, our pride».
Azadlig Square and the People's Movement
Protesting against the expulsion of Azerbaijanis from the Armenian SSR, the Karabakh claims and the centre's passivity, rallies began on 17 November 1988 on the central (now Azadlig) Square of Baku. In meetings that went on day and night, thousands and then many more people demanded the protection of territorial integrity, help for refugees and an end to the unlawful claims. In early December the square was cleared with the help of military forces, but the movement did not stop. Today 17 November is marked as National Revival Day.
The rallies made organisation necessary. On 16 July 1989 the founding conference of the Azerbaijan Popular Front (APF) was held in Baku; the head of the Front was Abulfaz Elchibey. The Front's demands reflected the main directions of public opinion: protection of territorial integrity, democratic rights, national sovereignty. National revival was not limited to political demands: the future of the mother tongue, of history, of national symbols and of the alphabet came up for public discussion. In this way the people joined the return to their language, history and culture with a political struggle, and the movement grew from a protest over Karabakh into a broad struggle for national sovereignty and democracy.
Under the pressure of the People's Movement the Supreme Soviet of the Azerbaijan SSR adopted the Constitutional Law on Sovereignty on 23 September 1989. The law declared the republic's territory indivisible, stated that the land and natural resources belonged to the republic and provided for the right to leave the USSR freely. It was an important legal step on the road to independence. The next stage of the tension, January 1990, is explained in «20 January 1990: our memory of blood, our pride».
- 11 March 1985
Gorbachev is elected General Secretary of the CPSU
- October 1987
Heydar Aliyev resigns from the Politburo
- 1987–1989
Expulsion of Azerbaijanis from the Armenian SSR
- 20 February 1988
The NKAO Soviet asks for the oblast to be joined to Armenia
- 22 February 1988
Clash at Askeran
- 27 February 1988
Sumgait events (27–29 February)
- 15 June 1988
The Supreme Soviet of the Armenian SSR agrees to accept the oblast into Armenia
- 17 June 1988
The Supreme Soviet of the Azerbaijan SSR rejects a change of borders
- 12 July 1988
The NKAO Soviet decides to leave the Azerbaijan SSR
- 18 July 1988
The Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet rules out a change of borders
- 17 November 1988
Rallies in Azadlig Square
- 12 January 1989
The Special Administration Committee under Volsky is set up
- 16 July 1989
Founding conference of the Azerbaijan Popular Front
- 23 September 1989
Law on sovereignty
- 1 December 1989
The Armenian SSR Supreme Soviet adopts a one-sided decision on union with Karabakh
| Person | Period | Role |
|---|---|---|
| Mikhail Gorbachev | 1985 | General Secretary of the CPSU; author of the course of perestroika and glasnost |
| Heydar Aliyev | 1987 | Resigned from the Politburo |
| Arkady Volsky | 1989 | Head of the Special Administration Committee in the NKAO |
| Abulfaz Elchibey | 1989 | Head of the Azerbaijan Popular Front |
| Date | Decision | Adopted by | Result |
|---|---|---|---|
| 20 February 1988 | Request to join the oblast to Armenia | NKAO Soviet of People's Deputies | An attack on Azerbaijan's territorial integrity; not confirmed |
| 15 June 1988 | Agreement to accept the oblast into Armenia | Supreme Soviet of the Armenian SSR | The Supreme Soviet of the Azerbaijan SSR rejected it on 17 June |
| 17 June 1988 | Rejection of a change of borders | Supreme Soviet of the Azerbaijan SSR | The republic's position on territorial integrity was stated; the matter was not settled |
| 12 July 1988 | Decision to leave the Azerbaijan SSR | NKAO Soviet | Ruled out on 18 July |
| 18 July 1988 | A change of borders is unacceptable | Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet | The existing borders remained; the claims continued |
| 23 September 1989 | Constitutional Law on Sovereignty | Supreme Soviet of the Azerbaijan SSR | Territory indivisible; right to leave the USSR |
| 1 December 1989 | Decision on uniting Karabakh with Armenia | Supreme Soviet of the Armenian SSR | One-sided; Azerbaijan did not recognise it |
| Cause | Result |
|---|---|
| Stagnation, economic difficulties and a system that could not renew itself | Gorbachev announced the course of perestroika (1985) |
| Glasnost: open discussion of problems | National questions returned; the Karabakh claims became an open campaign |
| Expulsions from the Armenian SSR, the Karabakh claims, the centre's passivity | Mass rallies began in Baku on 17 November 1988 |
| The rallies went on and an organisation was needed | The Azerbaijan Popular Front was formed (1989) |
| The pressure of the People's Movement and the threat to territorial integrity | The Constitutional Law on Sovereignty was adopted (23 September 1989) |
| Feature | The Azadlig Square rallies | The Azerbaijan Popular Front |
|---|---|---|
| Nature | Mass protest rallies | A permanent political organisation |
| Start | 17 November 1988 | Founding conference, 16 July 1989 |
| Main demands | Protection of territorial integrity, help for refugees | Territorial integrity, democratic rights, national sovereignty |
| Outcome | The beginning of the movement; National Revival Day | Pressure towards the sovereignty law and later steps to independence |
Interactive
More than four years had passed since the course of perestroika was announced. The deputies had gathered to discuss an important document on the republic's future. On the squares people were worried about the claims around Nagorno-Karabakh and the fate of their expelled countrymen.
The deputies adopted the document. It said: the republic's land and natural resources belong to its people; the republic's territory is indivisible and inviolable; the republic keeps the right to leave the union freely.
Source tasks
Problem
1) Identify the document that is not named in the text, the body that adopted it and the year of adoption.
2) Explain one political and one economic reason why this document was adopted.
3) Write two consequences of the document that are not stated in the text.
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Solution
2) Political: the need to secure the republic's territorial integrity in law in the face of the Karabakh claims, the expulsions and the People's Movement. Economic: keeping control over the republic's land and natural resources, a wish for economic freedom while perestroika failed to repair the economy (accepted as a logical inference). The weakening authority of the centre is also accepted as a political reason, and other well-argued explanations earn marks too. Marks: both — 1; one — ½.
3) The law strengthened the republic's legal independence from the centre and became the legal basis of later steps to independence (the change of name and flag in 1991); the demands of the People's Movement moved into the legal sphere (these are accepted as logical inferences, and other well-argued consequences earn marks too). Marks: two consequences — 1; one — ½; «territory is indivisible», which is in the text, earns nothing.
Exam task: chronology
Problem
Put the events in chronological order:
1. The Sumgait events
2. The clash at Askeran
3. The NKAO Soviet's request to join Armenia
4. The start of the rallies in Azadlig Square
5. The adoption of the law on sovereignty
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Solution
Step 2: the rallies in Azadlig Square are in November of the same year (4).
Step 3: the sovereignty law is in September 1989 (5).
Answer: 3, 2, 1, 4, 5.
Exam task: «does not belong»
Problem
Which does NOT belong to the events of 1988–1989:
A) The rallies in Azadlig Square
B) The expulsion of Azerbaijanis from the Armenian SSR
C) The proclamation of the Azerbaijan SSR
D) The founding conference of the Azerbaijan Popular Front
E) The Constitutional Law on Sovereignty
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Solution
Step 2: C — the Azerbaijan SSR was proclaimed on 28 April 1920, almost seven decades earlier.
Answer: C.
Exam task: combination
Problem
Choose the correct statements about the start of the Karabakh conflict:
1. The NKAO was created in 1923 within the Azerbaijan SSR
2. The Special Administration Committee was created in Shusha by Armenia
3. In February 1988 the NKAO Soviet asked for the oblast to be joined to Armenia
4. On 18 July 1988 the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet ruled out a change of borders
A) 1, 2, 3 B) 1, 3, 4 C) 2, 3, 4 D) 1, 2, 4 E) 2, 4
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Solution
Step 2: 2 is false — the Special Administration Committee was created by the centre (headed by Volsky) in January 1989, not by Armenia; and the oblast's centre was Khankendi.
Step 3: we cross out the options that include statement 2 (A, C, D, E).
Answer: B.
Remember
- Gorbachev became General Secretary on 11 March 1985; perestroika and glasnost brought national questions back onto the agenda.
- In 1987–1989 Azerbaijanis were expelled from the Armenian SSR; on 20 February 1988 the NKAO Soviet asked to join Armenia.
- February 1988: 20 (decision), 22 (Askeran), 27–29 (Sumgait); on 15 June the Supreme Soviet of the Armenian SSR agreed and on 17 June that of the Azerbaijan SSR rejected a change of borders; on 12 July the NKAO Soviet decided to leave, on 18 July the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet ruled out a change of borders.
- Rallies began in Azadlig Square on 17 November 1988 (National Revival Day); on 12 January 1989 the Special Administration Committee under Volsky was set up.
- The APF founding conference was held on 16 July 1989; on 23 September 1989 the Supreme Soviet adopted the Constitutional Law on Sovereignty; the one-sided decision of the Armenian SSR of 1 December 1989 was not recognised.