18 February 1978. Thousands of people have gathered in the streets of Tabriz: exactly forty days have passed since protesters were killed in the city of Qom, and in the Shia tradition that is a day of remembrance. The memorial march turns into an unprecedented uprising: the crowd attacks symbols of the regime and the armed forces open fire. One of the largest events of the revolution that overthrew the Shah takes place in the heart of Southern Azerbaijan.
On the eve of the revolution: the Pahlavi regime and the Azerbaijanis
After Reza Shah left the throne in 1941 his son Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi (1941–1979) came to power. After the fall of the National Government in 1946 (see the lesson «Southern Azerbaijan in the 1920s–1940s: Reza Shah, Pishevari and the National Government») the ban on the Azerbaijani language was restored and power became ever more centralised. The opposition was watched by the secret police SAVAK (1957), and in 1975 Rastakhiz was declared the only legal party.
The «White Revolution» (1963) brought land reform and the vote for women, but social inequality grew: part of the peasantry moved to the cities. The clergy opposed the secular reforms; Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, who criticised the Shah, was expelled in 1964 and later lived in Najaf in Iraq. The Azerbaijanis’ main grievance was their mother tongue: the pan-Iranist policy continued, and schools, press and publishing in Azerbaijani were forbidden.
The revolution begins (1978–1979)
In January 1978 a newspaper article insulting Khomeini caused protests in Qom, and on 9 January the armed forces fired on the demonstrators. In the Shia tradition the dead are commemorated on the 40th day, and each commemoration turned into a new wave of protest. On 18 February 1978, in Tabriz, the memorial march became an uprising: protesters attacked banks, cinemas and Rastakhiz buildings, which were seen as symbols of the regime, and the forces opened fire; reports of the number of dead differ. The protests spread across the whole country.
On 8 September («Black Friday») demonstrators were shot at in Tehran under martial law, but strikes, the oil industry among them, paralysed the country. In October 1978 Khomeini moved to France and led the movement from there. On 16 January 1979 the Shah left Iran, on 1 February Khomeini returned to Tehran, and in early February he appointed Mehdi Bazargan head of a provisional government. On 11 February 1979 the government of Shapour Bakhtiar, the Shah’s last prime minister, fell.
The Azerbaijanis took an active part in the revolution because they were dissatisfied with the regime. The Azerbaijani Ayatollah Kazem Shariatmadari, who lived in Qom, was one of the most influential Shia clerics. The people of Southern Azerbaijan hoped that the new order would recognise their rights to their mother tongue and to local self-government.
| Person | Role | Key point |
|---|---|---|
| Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi | Shah of Iran (1941–1979) | left the country on 16 January 1979 |
| Ruhollah Khomeini | leader of the revolution, ayatollah | returned 1 February 1979; velayat-e faqih |
| Kazem Shariatmadari | Azerbaijani ayatollah | objected to the Constitution; house arrest (1982) |
| Mehdi Bazargan | head of the provisional government | February 1979 |
| Shapour Bakhtiar | the Shah’s last prime minister | his government fell on 11 February 1979 |
Interactive
The Islamic Republic and the legal struggle
Velayat-e faqih (guardianship of the jurist)Definition
The main principle of the Islamic Republic: supreme authority belongs to the most senior Shia jurist. After the revolution Khomeini held this office, and it became the central issue in the disputes over the Constitution.
After the referendum of 30–31 March 1979 the Islamic Republic of Iran was proclaimed on 1 April 1979. While the country’s new Basic Law was being drafted and then adopted by referendum in December (2–3 December), the main dispute centred on the principle of velayat-e faqih. Shariatmadari and his supporters objected to the concentration of supreme power in the hands of one person.
The Azerbaijanis’ demands stayed within the law. Article 15 of the Constitution made Persian the official language, but it allowed regional languages in the press and media and the teaching of their literature in schools. Shariatmadari’s supporters founded the Muslim People’s Republican Party (MPRP) in 1979; its main base was in Tabriz, and it demanded mother-tongue education and local self-government. The MPRP boycotted the referendum of 2–3 December.
«The official and common language and script of the people of this country is Persian. Official documents, correspondence and texts, as well as textbooks, must be in this language and script. But the use of regional and tribal languages in the press and the mass media is free, and the literature of these languages may be taught in schools alongside Persian.»
This part belongs to the chapter of the document devoted to language, script, calendar and flag; the document was adopted by referendum after the monarchy in the country had been overthrown.
Source tasks
Problem
1) Identify the document that the text does not name, the year it was adopted and the field this article deals with.
2) Explain one political and one cultural reason why the Southern Azerbaijanis expected their mother-tongue rights to be recognised.
3) Write two results, not mentioned in the text, concerning the later fate of this article.
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Solution
2) Political: the Azerbaijanis had taken part in the revolution and expected equal rights from the new authorities. Cultural: because schooling and press in the mother tongue had been forbidden under the Shah, the language was in danger of being lost. Marks: both causes explained — 1; both unexplained — ⅔; one explained — ½; one unexplained — ⅓.
3) According to Azerbaijani historiography the article was in practice not applied (the Iranian authorities assess this differently); Azerbaijani did not become a language of instruction in state schools; the movement for the mother tongue lived on in later generations (although publishing in the mother tongue stayed limited). Marks: two results — 1; one result — ½.
The Tabriz uprising (1979) and the consolidation of power
After the Constitution was adopted by the referendum of 2–3 December 1979, objection to it and to the principle of velayat-e faqih turned into mass demonstrations in Tabriz. Shariatmadari’s supporters demanded the mother tongue, local self-government and a change to the Constitution; an attack on Shariatmadari’s supporters in Qom sharpened the tension still further. The central authorities regarded this as action against the revolution; the uprising, which lasted from December 1979 to January 1980, was put down by supporters of the central authorities.
After the uprising the MPRP was dissolved (1980) and its supporters were persecuted. The Iran–Iraq war, which began in September 1980, strengthened the regime still further. In 1982 Shariatmadari was accused of taking part in a plot against the government, was stripped of his clerical rank and placed under house arrest (he died in 1986). According to Azerbaijani historiography Article 15 was in practice not applied: Azerbaijani did not become a language of instruction in state schools, and opportunities for education and publishing in the mother tongue were limited. The Iranian authorities assess the provisions on regional languages differently. Even so, the movement for the mother tongue and national consciousness lived on in later generations. For the next topic see the lesson «The restoration of independence and the power struggles (1991–1993)».
| Cause | Result |
|---|---|
| deeper causes: pan-Iranism, the ban on the mother tongue, social inequality; immediate trigger: the 40th day after Qom | the Tabriz uprising (February 1978), wide participation in the revolution |
| the 40-day commemorations, strikes, the Shah’s weakening | the Shah leaves (16 January 1979), the Republic is proclaimed (1 April) |
| the dispute over velayat-e faqih, objection to the Constitution, the MPRP’s boycott of the referendum | the Tabriz uprising (December 1979) |
| the suppression of the uprising | the dissolution of the MPRP (1980), persecution of its supporters, later Shariatmadari’s house arrest (1982) |
| the country’s move onto a war footing (Iran–Iraq, 1980) | further consolidation of power |
| Feature | Mohammad Reza Shah’s regime (1941–1979) | Islamic Republic (from 1979) |
|---|---|---|
| power | monarchy, the Shah | republic, velayat-e faqih |
| main ideology | pan-Iranism | velayat-e faqih, Shia law |
| mother-tongue rights | forbidden | in Article 15; in practice not applied, according to Azerbaijani historiography |
| Azerbaijani-language state school | none | none |
| attitude to the opposition | SAVAK, Rastakhiz | MPRP dissolved, Shariatmadari under house arrest |
- 1941
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi comes to the throne
- 1963
The «White Revolution»
- 1964
Khomeini is expelled from the country
- 1975
Rastakhiz is declared the only legal party
- 9 January 1978
The Qom protests
- 18 February 1978
The Tabriz uprising
- 8 September 1978
«Black Friday» (Tehran): shooting under martial law
- 16 January 1979
The Shah leaves Iran
- 1 February 1979
Khomeini returns to Tehran
- 11 February 1979
The Bakhtiar government falls
- 1 April 1979
The Islamic Republic of Iran is proclaimed
- December 1979
The constitutional referendum (2–3 December); the Tabriz uprising (until January 1980)
- 1980
The MPRP is dissolved
- September 1980
The Iran–Iraq war begins
- 1982
Shariatmadari is placed under house arrest
A chronology item
Problem
Put the events in chronological order: 1. the «White Revolution» 2. the creation of Rastakhiz 3. Khomeini’s expulsion from the country 4. «Black Friday»
A) 1, 2, 3, 4 B) 1, 3, 2, 4 C) 3, 1, 2, 4 D) 1, 3, 4, 2 E) 2, 1, 3, 4
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Solution
A coded item
Problem
About the Tabriz uprising of December 1979: 1. Shariatmadari’s supporters took part 2. Seyid Jafar Pishevari led it 3. Objection was voiced to the Constitution and the principle of velayat-e faqih 4. The uprising was put down 5. The uprising caused the Shah’s overthrow
A) 1, 3, 4 B) 2, 4, 5 C) 1, 2, 3 D) 3, 4, 5 E) 1, 4, 5
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Solution
A «not related» item
Problem
Not related to the legal struggle in Southern Azerbaijan after the revolution:
A) the MPRP B) Article 15 of the Constitution C) Kazem Shariatmadari D) the Azerbaijan Democratic Party (1945) E) objection to velayat-e faqih
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Solution
Remember
- Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi (1941–1979): centralisation, SAVAK, Rastakhiz, pan-Iranism; schools and press in Azerbaijani were banned.
- Qom (9 January 1978) → 40 days later the Tabriz uprising (18 February 1978): the protests spread across the whole country.
- On 16 January 1979 the Shah leaves; on 1 February Khomeini returns; on 11 February the Bakhtiar government falls; on 1 April 1979 the Islamic Republic of Iran is proclaimed.
- The Constitution (referendum of 2–3 December 1979): velayat-e faqih; Article 15 allowed regional languages in the press and media. Shariatmadari and the MPRP waged a legal struggle.
- The Tabriz uprising (December 1979 – January 1980) was put down, the MPRP was dissolved and Shariatmadari was placed under house arrest (1982); according to Azerbaijani historiography Article 15 was in practice not applied.