1795. On its way to Iravan, Agha Muhammad Khan Qajar’s army meets unexpectedly stiff resistance at Nakhchivan, gives up the siege and moves on. The Iravan fortress, poorly defended, is soon taken. Why did the two neighbouring khanates fare so differently, and why did so many states fight over these lands?
The position of the western khanates
In Safavid times the western Azerbaijani lands mostly belonged to the Chukhursaad beylerbeylik, whose centre was Iravan. After Nadir Shah’s death the Iravan and Nakhchivan khanates arose here (see «The rise of the khanates and the southern khanates»). Their lands lay on international trade routes and had strategic value: roads to Tabriz, Tiflis and the Ottoman lands passed through them. That is exactly why both khanates suffered attacks both from neighbouring khanates and from foreign states — Kartli-Kakheti, the Qajars and later Russia.
The Iravan khanate
The Iravan khanate was founded by Mir Mahdi Khan Afshar (1747–1752). In 1755 Hasanali Khan Qajar became khan of Iravan, and a dynasty from the Qajar tribe came to power there. The great majority of the khanate’s people were Azerbaijani Turks, the oldest inhabitants of the land; this is confirmed by the place names of the time, by European travellers and even by the works of the Armenian historian A. Ioannisyan. The Christians, a small part of the population, came to the region in connection with the move of the Armenian Catholicosate from Cilicia to Uchkilsa (Etchmiadzin) in 1441.
The people lived mainly by farming and stock-breeding. The city of Iravan was one of Azerbaijan’s important centres of crafts and trade: since it lay at a junction of roads to many countries, the khanate had many bridges, caravanserais, bazaars and mints. Local copper coins called «qara pul» («black money») were struck here, and Safavid coins and coins of other khanates and foreign countries were used as well.
The struggle over Iravan
At different times Iravan fell into dependence on the Georgian king and on the Karabakh and Khoy khanates: under Panahali Khan it depended on Karabakh, and Ahmad Khan of Khoy also kept it dependent for a while (see «The Karabakh khanate: Panahali Khan and Ibrahimkhalil Khan»). In 1779 the Georgian king Erekle II attacked Iravan and seized part of the khanate — Shoragel. After 1783, when the Treaty of Georgievsk put Erekle under Russian protection, his aggressive policy grew even stronger, and this drew Iravan closer to the Ottoman state. In 1795, after Agha Muhammad Khan’s campaign, Iravan became dependent on him (see «The last attempt at unification: Agha Muhammad Shah Qajar»). In the early 19th century the Iravan fortress withstood Tsitsianov’s siege of 1804, but was taken by Russian troops in 1827 (see «The second Russo-Qajar war (1826–1828) and the Treaty of Turkmenchay»).
The Nakhchivan khanate
The Nakhchivan khanate was founded by Heydargulu Khan (1747–1763), chief of the local Kangarli tribe. The khanate stretched from Zangezur to the valley of the Araz and bordered the Iravan, Karabakh, Khoy and Maku khanates. Since part of its land was mountainous, stock-breeding played a large role in the economy; a shortage of water hampered farming, yet farming remained the region’s traditional occupation.
Feudal wars, struggle against foreign invasion and palace feuds shaped the khanate’s political life. Heydargulu Khan pursued alliances with his neighbours to protect his power and in the 1750s accepted dependence on Panahali Khan of Karabakh. After his death the khanate weakened and for a while depended on Karim Khan Zand, ruler of Shiraz; later Ibrahimkhalil Khan also kept Nakhchivan dependent. The 1780s were a time of struggle for power. Erekle II, having made Iravan dependent, prepared to march on Nakhchivan too, but the displeasure of the Ottoman state prevented the campaign. Under Kalbali Khan (1787–1820) Nakhchivan fell into dependence on the Qajars: although it put up stiff resistance to the Qajar army in 1795, in 1797 Kalbali Khan recognised the shah’s authority at Ardabil and was arrested for keeping contacts with Russian troops. In 1827 Nakhchivan too was taken by Russian troops.
- 1441
The Armenian Catholicosate moves from Cilicia to Uchkilsa
- 1747
The Iravan and Nakhchivan khanates arise
Founders: Mir Mahdi Khan Afshar and Heydargulu Khan Kangarli.
- 1755
Hasanali Khan Qajar becomes khan of Iravan
- 1750s
Heydargulu Khan accepts dependence on Panahali Khan
- 1779
Erekle II attacks Iravan and seizes Shoragel
- 1783
After Georgievsk Iravan draws closer to the Ottoman state
- 1787
Kalbali Khan becomes khan of Nakhchivan
- 1795
The Qajar army meets resistance at Nakhchivan and takes the Iravan fortress
- 1797
Kalbali Khan is arrested at Ardabil
- 1804
Tsitsianov’s siege of Iravan fails
- 1827
Russian troops take Nakhchivan and Iravan
- 1828
Turkmenchay: Iravan and Nakhchivan pass to Russia; the «Armenian province»
| Ruler | Khanate | Date | Key fact |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mir Mahdi Khan Afshar | Iravan | 1747–1752 | Founder of the khanate |
| Hasanali Khan Qajar | Iravan | from 1755 | Start of Qajar dynasty rule |
| Heydargulu Khan | Nakhchivan | 1747–1763 | Chief of the Kangarli tribe; dependent on Panahali Khan in the 1750s |
| Kalbali Khan | Nakhchivan | 1787–1820 | Nakhchivan became dependent on the Qajars; arrested in 1797 |
| Erekle II | Kartli-Kakheti | 1779 | Attacked Iravan, seized Shoragel; his Nakhchivan campaign never happened |
| Feature | Iravan khanate | Nakhchivan khanate |
|---|---|---|
| Ruling dynasty | From the Qajar tribe, from 1755 | From the local Kangarli tribe |
| Economy | Farming, stock-breeding; the city a centre of crafts and trade, with mints | Mountains — stock-breeding; water shortage hampered farming |
| Dependence | The Georgian king, Karabakh, Khoy; Agha Muhammad Khan from 1795 | Karabakh (1750s), Karim Khan Zand, later the Qajars |
| Erekle II’s policy | Attack in 1779, Shoragel seized | A campaign was prepared, but Ottoman displeasure stopped it |
| In common | Founded 1747, depended on Karabakh, passed to Russia in 1828 | Founded 1747, depended on Karabakh, passed to Russia in 1828 |
| Cause | Result |
|---|---|
| A strategic position on trade routes | Frequent attacks by neighbouring khanates and foreign states |
| Lying at a junction of roads | Iravan had many bridges, caravanserais, bazaars and mints |
| Treaty of Georgievsk (1783) | Erekle’s aggression grew, and Iravan drew closer to the Ottomans |
| The Ottoman state’s displeasure | Erekle II’s campaign on Nakhchivan did not take place |
| Kalbali Khan’s contacts with Russian troops | In 1797 Agha Muhammad Shah had him arrested |
| Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828) | Both khanates passed to Russia, and the «Armenian province» was created in their place |
Interactive
Source: a letter from Tiflis to St Petersburg
Having passed under Russian protection, the Georgian king often asks that the neighbouring Azerbaijani lands — Ganja, Iravan and Nakhchivan — be made subject to him. But the situation here is not as easy as he imagines.
Since Iravan is a city belonging to Azerbaijan, the Ottoman sultan will never agree to its being handed to the Georgians; the sultan has ordered the pasha of Erzurum and the other frontier pashas to oppose our troops. Besides, the khan of Karabakh and the other Azerbaijani khans have united to save Iravan from Georgian occupation.
Source tasks
Problem
1) Name the Georgian king, who is not named in the text, and give the name and year of the treaty that put him under Russian protection.
2) Explain one political and one strategic reason why the Ottoman state opposed handing Iravan to the Georgians.
3) Give two consequences of the situation described that are NOT stated in the text.
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Solution
2) Political: the Ottoman state regarded Iravan as an Azerbaijani (Muslim) city and did not want the Georgian kingdom under Russian protection to grow stronger. Strategic: Iravan was close to the Ottoman border and the trade roads to Erzurum — more Russian influence there would threaten the frontier. Marks: both — 1; one — ½.
3) Iravan drew closer to the Ottoman state; the campaign Erekle II prepared against Nakhchivan did not take place because of Ottoman displeasure; Iravan was not joined to Georgia, and in 1795 it became dependent on Agha Muhammad Khan. Marks: two consequences — 1; one — ½; the khans uniting is in the text and earns nothing.
Exam-type tasks
Exam task: «like X, unlike Y»
Problem
Choose what the Iravan khanate shared with the Nakhchivan khanate but not with the Guba khanate:
1. It arose in the mid-18th century
2. At various times it depended on the Karabakh khanate
3. Erekle II asked Russia to make it subject to him
4. It lay on the Caspian coast
5. It passed to Russia by the Treaty of Turkmenchay of 1828
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Solution
Step 2: 4 — neither Iravan nor Nakhchivan lay on the Caspian, so it is not even a similarity.
Step 3: 2, 3 and 5 are true of Iravan and Nakhchivan but not of Guba: Guba never depended on Karabakh, is not named in Erekle’s letter, was occupied in 1806 and passed to Russia by the Treaty of Gulistan (1813).
Answer: 2, 3, 5.
Exam task: matching
Problem
Match each khanate with its founder:
1. Iravan
2. Nakhchivan
3. Karabakh
a. Heydargulu Khan
b. Mir Mahdi Khan Afshar
c. Panahali Khan
d. Husaynali Khan
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Solution
Step 2: The spare «d» — Husaynali Khan founded the Guba khanate.
Trap: from 1755 a Qajar dynasty ruled Iravan, but its founder was the Afshar Mir Mahdi Khan.
Answer: 1-b, 2-a, 3-c.
This ends the first part of the khanate period. The Shamakhi, Ganja, Baku, Derbent and Lankaran khanates come in the next unit, which also includes «The Baku, Derbent and Lankaran khanates; communities, sultanates and meliks».
Remember
- In Safavid times the western Azerbaijani lands mostly belonged to the Chukhursaad beylerbeylik; after 1747 the Iravan and Nakhchivan khanates arose there.
- The Iravan khanate was founded by Mir Mahdi Khan Afshar, and a Qajar dynasty ruled from 1755; most of its people were Azerbaijanis; the city was a centre of crafts and trade where «qara pul» was struck.
- In 1779 Erekle II seized Shoragel; Iravan depended on the Georgian king, Karabakh, Khoy and from 1795 on Agha Muhammad Khan; after 1783 it drew closer to the Ottomans.
- The Nakhchivan khanate was founded by Heydargulu Khan, chief of the Kangarli tribe; in the 1750s he depended on Panahali Khan of Karabakh, later on Karim Khan Zand; under Kalbali Khan (1787–1820) it depended on the Qajars.
- Ottoman displeasure stopped Erekle II’s campaign on Nakhchivan; in 1827 both khanates were taken by Russian troops and in 1828 passed to Russia by the Treaty of Turkmenchay.