The night of 14 to 15 September 1918. In the port of Baku British soldiers hurry onto ships. In the morning the Caucasian Islamic Army and Azerbaijani units enter the city, and two days later the government moves from Ganja to Baku. Yet freeing the capital was not the end of the struggle for territorial integrity but its beginning: hard years of fighting for Karabakh, Zangezur and Nakhchivan lay ahead.
The struggle for Baku: from the Baku Sovnarkom to the Centro-Caspian Dictatorship
After the victory near Goychay (see «The founding of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic and the Declaration of Independence») the Caucasian Islamic Army advanced on Baku. Tension rose in the city: a majority of the Baku Soviet voted to call in the British. Shaumyan’s Baku Sovnarkom, which opposed this, resigned on 31 July 1918. On 1 August the Socialist Revolutionaries, Mensheviks and Dashnaks set up the Centro-Caspian Dictatorship and invited the British troops stationed in northern Iran to Baku.
In August British troops under General Dunsterville arrived in Baku. The city was defended jointly by Dashnak units and Russian and British soldiers. A first assault on Baku in early August failed, and the Caucasian Islamic Army gathered reinforcements for a decisive attack.
15 September 1918: the liberation of Baku
The decisive assault began on 14 September; the British left the city by ship during the night, and on 15 September 1918 the Caucasian Islamic Army together with Azerbaijani units liberated Baku. On 17 September the government moved from Ganja to Baku, which became the capital of the Republic. The Turkish soldiers who fell for Baku are remembered today at the Turkish Martyrs’ Memorial in the city.
Freeing Baku was decisive for three reasons: the state regained its capital and economic centre — the oil industry, the port and the railway; the violence against the population under the Baku Sovnarkom and the Centro-Caspian regime was ended; and the parliament, ministries and university could be built precisely in Baku (see «Domestic policy of the ADR: state building, army, economy and culture»).
After Mudros: the Ottomans leave, the British arrive
Defeated in the First World War, the Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros with the Entente on 30 October 1918. Under it Ottoman troops had to leave the South Caucasus. The Caucasian Islamic Army left Azerbaijan, though some Turkish officers stayed on to serve in the Azerbaijani army. Ottoman troops were withdrawn from Nakhchivan too, and the region risked being left defenceless against Armenian armed bands. In response the local population created the Aras-Turkic Republic with its centre in Nakhchivan.
On 17 November 1918 British troops under General Thomson entered Baku on behalf of the Entente. Thomson declared himself governor-general of Baku and at first did not recognise the Republic’s government. But after parliament opened, at the end of December 1918, he announced that he recognised Khoyski’s government as the only lawful authority in Azerbaijan. The British troops left Baku in August 1919.
The struggle for Karabakh, Zangezur and Nakhchivan
The roots of the territorial disputes went back to May 1918. The Republic of Armenia, which declared independence on 28 May, had no political centre; on 29 May, under heavy pressure, the Azerbaijani National Council ceded Irevan to Armenia as its capital. Thus the Republic of Armenia was created on historical Azerbaijani land — the territory of the former Irevan Khanate. The concession was expected to stop further territorial claims, but Armenia soon claimed Karabakh, Zangezur and Nakhchivan as well.
Karabakh was in the worst position: Andranik’s armed bands were destroying Azerbaijani villages in Zangezur and the highland part of Karabakh. In January 1919 the government created the Karabakh governor-generalship, covering the Shusha, Javanshir, Jabrayil and Zangezur districts, with its centre in Shusha and Khosrov bey Sultanov as governor-general. The British command confirmed the appointment, and in August 1919 a congress of the Karabakh Armenians provisionally recognised the authority of the Azerbaijani government.
Nakhchivan was more complicated. Although a Nakhchivan governor-generalship was organised there, in 1919 the British command tried to hand the region’s administration to Armenia. The local population resisted by force of arms, led by experienced soldiers such as Kalbali Khan Nakhchivanski, and the Armenian administration was driven out of the region.
The peace did not last. In March 1920, during the Novruz holiday, Armenian armed bands rose in Karabakh — around Khankendi, Askeran and Shusha. The revolt was crushed in the fighting near Askeran, but to do so the main forces of the army were sent to Karabakh and Zangezur. The northern border was left almost undefended — which a month later made the Red Army’s attack easier (see «The fall of the ADR: the April invasion»).
| Person | Who he was, what he did |
|---|---|
| Nuri Pasha | Commander of the Caucasian Islamic Army; 15 September 1918 |
| Stepan Shaumyan | Chairman of the Baku Sovnarkom, which resigned on 31 July 1918 |
| Dunsterville | General of the British force invited by the Centro-Caspian regime (August 1918) |
| Thomson | General of the British force that came after Mudros (17 November 1918) |
| Khosrov bey Sultanov | Governor-general of Karabakh (January 1919, Shusha) |
| Kalbali Khan Nakhchivanski | One of the leaders of Nakhchivan’s defence (1919) |
| Cause | Result |
|---|---|
| The Baku Soviet decides to invite the British | The Baku Sovnarkom resigns (31 July); the Centro-Caspian Dictatorship (1 August 1918) |
| Baku liberated (15 September) | The government moves to Baku, which becomes the capital (17 September 1918) |
| The Armistice of Mudros (30 October 1918) | Ottoman troops leave Azerbaijan, Nakhchivan included |
| Ottoman troops leave Nakhchivan | The Aras-Turkic Republic is created |
| Andranik’s bands active in Karabakh and Zangezur | The Karabakh governor-generalship (January 1919) |
| The Armenian revolt in Karabakh, the fighting at Askeran (March 1920) | The army’s main forces are drawn west; the northern border is weakened |
| Feature | Dunsterville (August–September 1918) | Thomson (November 1918 – August 1919) |
|---|---|---|
| Why they came | Invited by the Centro-Caspian Dictatorship | On behalf of the Entente after Mudros |
| Attitude to the ADR | Defended Baku against the Caucasian Islamic Army | At first no recognition; recognised the government at the end of December |
| How they left | On 14 September, during the decisive assault | In August 1919 |
| Similarity | British troops, interested in Baku oil | British troops, interested in Baku oil |
Interactive
- 29 May 1918
Irevan given to Armenia as its capital
- 1 July 1918
Victory in the battle of Goychay
- 31 July 1918
The Baku Sovnarkom resigns
- 1 August 1918
The Centro-Caspian Dictatorship
British troops are invited to Baku.
- 15 September 1918
Liberation of Baku
The Caucasian Islamic Army and Azerbaijani units enter the city.
- 17 September 1918
The government moves from Ganja to Baku
- 30 October 1918
Armistice of Mudros
Ottoman troops leave the South Caucasus.
- 17 November 1918
British troops in Baku
General Thomson.
- late 1918
The Aras-Turkic Republic
- January 1919
Karabakh governor-generalship
Centre Shusha; governor-general Kh. Sultanov.
- 1919
Attempt to hand Nakhchivan to Armenia; the people resist
- August 1919
British troops leave Baku
- March 1920
Revolt in Karabakh, fighting at Askeran
In view of the situation in Karabakh and Zangezur, let a special governor-generalship be organised from the Shusha, Javanshir, Jabrayil and Zangezur districts, with the town of Shusha as its centre. The governor-general, subordinate to the government, is to restore order in the region, prevent attacks by armed bands on the peaceful population and help refugees return to their villages and restore their fields.
Let a former minister of war be appointed governor-general. The police and administrative bodies of the districts are to be subordinate to him.
Source tasks
Problem
1) Which institution is being created? Give the date and name its head.
2) Explain one political and one military reason for this decision.
3) Give two consequences of the decision that are NOT stated in the text.
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Solution
2) Political: Armenia claimed Karabakh and Zangezur, and after Mudros the Ottomans had gone, leaving no firm authority in the region. Military: Andranik’s bands were destroying Azerbaijani villages and people had become refugees. Marks: two reasons explained — 1; one — ½.
3) Consequences: the British command confirmed the appointment; in August 1919 a congress of Karabakh Armenians provisionally recognised ADR authority; Karabakh was kept within Azerbaijan; but in March 1920 came the Armenian revolt and the fighting at Askeran. Marks: two consequences — 1; one — ½.
Exam task: matching cause and result
Problem
Match the causes with the results:
1. The Armistice of Mudros
2. The Baku Soviet decides to invite the British
3. Baku is liberated
a. the government moves to Baku
b. Ottoman troops leave Nakhchivan
c. the Baku Sovnarkom resigns
d. the Karabakh governor-generalship is created
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Solution
Step 2: Shaumyan opposed inviting the British; when the Soviet voted for it, the Sovnarkom resigned → 2-c.
Step 3: Two days after 15 September the government moved to Baku → 3-a.
Step 4: «d» is extra — it was caused by Andranik’s bands.
Answer: 1-b, 2-c, 3-a.
Exam task: «true of X, not of Y»
Problem
Choose what is true of Thomson’s troops but not of Dunsterville’s:
1. They came after the Armistice of Mudros
2. They came at the invitation of the Centro-Caspian Dictatorship
3. They stayed in Baku until August 1919
4. They tried to defend Baku from the Caucasian Islamic Army
5. They recognised Khoyski’s government as the lawful authority
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Solution
Step 2: Thomson came after Mudros (1), stayed until August 1919 (3) and recognised the government at the end of December (5).
Answer: 1, 3, 5.
Remember
- On 31 July 1918 the Baku Sovnarkom resigned; on 1 August the Centro-Caspian Dictatorship was set up and invited Dunsterville’s British troops.
- On 15 September 1918 the Caucasian Islamic Army and Azerbaijani units liberated Baku; on 17 September the government moved from Ganja to Baku.
- After the Armistice of Mudros (30 October 1918) the Ottomans left, Nakhchivan included; on 17 November Thomson’s British troops came to Baku.
- On 29 May 1918 Irevan was ceded to Armenia — the Republic of Armenia arose on Azerbaijani land, yet extended its claims to Karabakh, Zangezur and Nakhchivan.
- The Karabakh governor-generalship (January 1919, Shusha, Kh. Sultanov) and the Nakhchivan governor-generalship served territorial integrity; in March 1920 the Askeran fighting drew the army west.