- Classify classical forms by rhyme scheme, length and function
- Analyse the inner structure of the ghazal and the qasida
- Distinguish the rubai, tuyug and bayati by metre and type of rhyme
- Compare Eastern forms with Western ones
When you open Fuzuli's divan, why are the poems arranged in a certain order? Why is one qasida simply called the Water Qasida? Why is one four-line poem a rubai and another a bayati? Classical Eastern poetry is a literature of a precise system of forms: by choosing a form the poet already tells the reader a great deal — the theme, the length, even the intended audience.
Building blocks: line, couplet, rhyme, radif
The basic unit of classical verse is the beyt (couplet) — two lines. An ideal couplet is fairly complete in meaning, which is why a single couplet can be lifted out of a ghazal and quoted. At the end of the line comes the rhyme, followed by the unchanging radif. A poet's lyric poems are collected in a divan, usually arranged in the order of the Arabic alphabet by the last letter of the rhyme (or radif), and often opening with religious qasidas such as the tawhid and na't.
- athe main rhyme: in the ghazal and qasida it runs through the whole poem (monorhyme)
- b, c, dunrhymed lines (in the ghazal) or new rhymes (in the masnavi)
Rhyme formulas of the couplet-based forms. In the masnavi each couplet rhymes internally, which makes long narratives possible.
| Form | Length | Function and content | Masters |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ghazal | usually 5–15 couplets | love, philosophy, Sufism; fairly independent couplets | Nasimi, Fuzuli, Aliagha Vahid |
| Qasida | much longer than a ghazal: dozens, sometimes over a hundred couplets | praise, tawhid, na't, moral lesson, elegy | Qatran, Khagani, Fuzuli |
| Qit'a | at least 2 couplets; no opening rhymed couplet | a moral thought, a response to an event | many classical poets |
| Rubai | 4 lines | a philosophical conclusion; the “punch” in line four | Khayyam, Mahsati, Nasimi |
| Tuyug | 4 lines | specific to Turkic poetry; wordplay through homonym rhymes | Nasimi, Qazi Burhanaddin |
| Masnavi | unlimited: thousands of couplets | long poem, epic plot, didactic verse | Nizami, Fuzuli, Khatai |
The ghazal: a grammar of love
The ghazal's matla is the opening couplet, in which both lines rhyme; sometimes it is followed by another fully rhymed couplet, the husn-i matla. The strongest couplet is called the bayt al-ghazal (the “king couplet”). The last couplet, the maqta, usually carries the poet's pen name (takhallus). The ghazal's image system is fixed: rose and nightingale, candle and moth, the cypress (the beloved's stature), the curl, the beauty mark, the cupbearer and the tavern. These images can be read in a worldly sense (metaphorical love) or a divine one (true love) — and the ghazal's power lies in this double meaning.
Məndə sığar iki cahan, mən bu cahana sığmazam,
Gövhəri-laməkan mənəm, kövnü məkana sığmazam.
The qasida: a poem with a purpose
The qasida took shape in pre-Islamic Arabic poetry (6th century, the Mu'allaqat) and then passed into Persian and Turkic poetry. Its name is linked with the Arabic qasd, “intention, purpose”: a qasida always serves a purpose — praise, prayer or a moral lesson. Qasidas are named by theme (tawhid, na't, panegyric, elegy, satire) or by their radif: Fuzuli's Water Qasida takes its name from the radif su (“water”) repeated at the end of every couplet.
- 11. Nasib (tashbib)
The lyrical opening: a description of spring, nature or love.
- 22. Girizgah
The transition couplet: the poet “opens the door” from the opening to the main theme.
- 33. Madh (the main part)
The core: praise of God (tawhid), the Prophet (na't) or a ruler, or a moral reflection.
- 44. Fakhriyya
The poet's praise of his own art.
- 55. Dua (prayer)
A blessing and a graceful ending.
Saçma, ey göz, əşkdən könlümdəki odlarə su,
Kim bu dənli dutuşan odlarə qılmaz çarə su.
(a) 9 couplets, aa ba ca…, the name “Fuzuli” in the last couplet, theme — separation.
(b) 40 couplets, aa ba ca…; opens with a description of spring, turns to praise of a ruler, ends with a prayer.
(c) 4 lines, aaba, aruz; a philosophical conclusion in the last line.
(d) 4 lines, aaba, 7 syllables per line; begins “My dear…” (Əzizim).
(e) 2 couplets, ab cb; the lines of the first couplet do not rhyme.
(f) Thousands of couplets, aa bb cc…, a story with a plot.
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(b) Qasida — the scheme is the ghazal's, but the length and structure (nasib → girizgah → madh → dua) point to a qasida.
(c) Rubai — aruz + aaba + a philosophical ending.
(d) Bayati — the same scheme, but 7-syllable heja and a folk style.
(e) Qit'a — it has no matla.
(f) Masnavi — each couplet rhymes internally, so a long plot is possible.
Algorithm: 1) metre (heja or aruz) → 2) rhyme scheme → 3) length → 4) structure and function.
The rubai: a world in four lines
The rubai (Arabic for “quatrain”) consists of two couplets; its rhyme scheme is aaba, sometimes aaaa. It is written in special aruz metres derived from the hazaj; classical theory lists 24 variants of the rubai metre. The unrhymed third line builds tension and the fourth “opens” the thought. The most famous master of the Persian rubai is Omar Khayyam (1048–1131); in Azerbaijan it is Mahsati Ganjavi. In 1859 Edward FitzGerald freely translated rubais attributed to Khayyam into English, and the form became widely known in the West.
- —long (heavy) syllable
- ∪short (light) syllable
One of the rubai metres: maf'ūlu mafā'īlu mafā'īlu fa'al (the akhrab branch of the hazaj).
In qāfele-ye omr ajab migozarad,
Daryāb dami ke bā tarab migozarad.
Sāqi, gham-e fardā-ye harifān che khori?
Pish ār piyāle rā ke shab migozarad.
Our translation:
How strangely this caravan of life goes by!
Seize the moment that passes in joy.
Cupbearer, why grieve over your friends' tomorrow?
Bring the cup — the night is passing.
| Feature | Rubai | Tuyug | Bayati |
|---|---|---|---|
| Metre | aruz: 24 variants derived from the hazaj | aruz: ramal (fā'ilātun fā'ilātun fā'ilun) | heja, 7 syllables |
| Rhyme scheme | aaba / aaaa | aaba | aaba |
| Type of rhyme | ordinary rhyme, often with a radif | homonym (jinas) rhyme | simple, sometimes homonyms |
| Setting | classical written poetry | classical Turkic poetry | folk poetry |
| Masters | Khayyam, Mahsati | Nasimi, Qazi Burhanaddin | anonymous, the people |
Stanzaic forms and Western parallels
| Form | Structure | Key to the name |
|---|---|---|
| Murabba | 4-line stanzas: aaaa, bbba, ccca… | arba' — four |
| Mukhammas | 5-line stanzas: aaaaa, bbbba, cccca…; one built on another poet's ghazal is a takhmis | khams — five |
| Musaddas | 6-line stanzas (e.g. aaaaaa, bbbbaa…) | sitt — six |
| Tarjiband | stanzas end with the same linking couplet | tarji' — return: the refrain comes back |
| Tarkibband | the linking couplets differ each time | tarkib — combination |
| Mustazad | a short extra line after each line | mustazad — “increased” |
The sonnet is a single 14-line unit that develops its thought step by step; the ghazal is a “necklace” of fairly independent couplets held together by one rhyme and radif throughout. In the 19th century Eastern forms entered Western poetry: Goethe wrote the West-Eastern Divan (1819), the German poets F. Rückert and A. von Platen wrote ghazals in German, and FitzGerald introduced the Rubaiyat (1859) to English readers. In the 20th century the Spanish poet F. García Lorca wrote gacelas and casidas in his Diván del Tamarit.
A modern English poet writes a 14-line poem: 7 couplets, the same word repeated at the end of every couplet, both lines of the first couplet rhyming, and the poet addressing himself by name in the last couplet. Is it a sonnet or a ghazal? Justify.
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2) Here the unit is the couplet (7 couplets), each ending in the same word — a radif; the first couplet is a matla (aa), and the last names the poet — the maqta with a takhallus.
3) Conclusion: this is a ghazal written in English. A form does not depend on language: it is defined by the rhyme scheme, the radif and the autonomy of the couplet.
- 6th centuryThe Arabic qasida, the Mu'allaqat
- 10th centuryRudaki: qasida and rubai in Persian poetry
- 11th–12th centuriesQatran and Khagani (qasida), Mahsati (rubai), Nizami (masnavi)
- 14th centuryHafiz (ghazal); Nasimi — ghazal and tuyug in Azerbaijani
- 16th centuryFuzuli: the summit of ghazal and qasida
- 1819Goethe, West-Eastern Divan
- 1859FitzGerald, Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám
- 1.The first couplet of a ghazal, with both lines rhyming, is the .
- 2.In a qasida, the couplet that moves from the lyrical opening to the main part is the .
- 3.In the *Water Qasida*, the word *su* repeated at the end of every couplet is the .
- 4.Classical theory lists variants of the rubai metre.
- 5.A stanzaic form in which every stanza ends with the same linking couplet is a .
Key points
- Couplet-based forms: ghazal and qasida (aa ba ca…), qit'a (no matla), rubai and tuyug (aaba), masnavi (aa bb cc…).
- Ghazal: matla, husn-i matla, king couplet, maqta and takhallus; its images can be read as metaphorical or true love.
- The qasida is a poem with a purpose: nasib → girizgah → madh → fakhriyya → dua; it is named by theme or radif.
- The rubai uses 24 hazaj-derived metres; the tuyug uses ramal with homonym rhymes; the bayati is 7-syllable heja.
- Stanzaic forms: murabba (4), mukhammas (5), musaddas (6), tarjiband, tarkibband, mustazad.
- A form is defined not by language but by rhyme scheme, radif, metre and couplet autonomy: a ghazal in English is still a ghazal.
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